The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley Essay Example

The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley Paper Enzymes are a class of proteins that catalyse chemical reactions, which increases the rate of a metabolic reaction. Most enzymes are specific, working on a particular or class of reactions. In this case I am using an enzyme known as amylase (a group of enzymes which convert starch to sugar), which is an important metabolic enzyme. Amylase is found in various parts of the body including the saliva of the parotid gland and the pancreas, e. g. ptyalin, which aids in the digestion of carbohydrates by speeding up specific digestive processes taking place from the mouth to the small intestines. However, in this experiment we are using amylase which has been extracted from barley. The function of amylase is to catalyze (to modify the rate of a chemical reaction by catalysis) the hydrolysis (decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water) of starch into glucose. Starch is a mixture of two compounds; amylose and amylopectin, both of these molecules are polymers which contain a large, variable number of a-glucose molecules linked to each other by condensation. Amylase acts on starch, which is a polysaccharide (a class of carbohydrates; starch, consisting of a number of twenty-five monosaccharides) and breaks it down into maltose, a disaccharide. A disaccharide is defined as any class of carbohydrates; maltose, that yield two monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The disaccharide sugars; maltose, lactose, and sucrose, have the empirical formula C12H22O11. When treated with enzymes, the disaccharides combine with one molecule of water and split into two molecules of monosaccharide hexose sugars, e. . maltose splits into two molecules of glucose when treated. In order for amylase to continue working at its best, the body needs to keep within several degrees of 37 C (an optimum temperature for most enzymes), as enzymes must work in mild conditions of a cell in the body. Chemicals which are changed by enzyme-catalysed reactions are known as the substrates of that enzyme, which fit into the active site (where the reaction takes place) of the enzyme, in a lock-and-key mechanism. We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The effect of temperature on the hydrolysis of starch using amylase extracted from barley specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The products of the reaction then leave the active site, which frees it up for more similar reactions to take place. If our body heat exceeds further past 37 C our cells become impaired or permanently damaged, this damage is irreversible to the molecular structure of the enzymes due to the velocity with which the atoms move about. This is because the structure of the an enzyme vibrates so much that some of the bonds holding the tertiary structure together break (especially hydrogen bonds as they are weak). So now the enzyme starts to lose its globular shape, because of this the substrate will no longer be able to fit into its active site. In other words when the enzymes become denatured, there is a major change from the native state to another state without the changing of the primary structure, this usually leaves the enzyme without its catalytic functions. At a temperature of approximately 100 C amylase becomes denatured. Whereas, if our body heat was to descend below 37 C the metabolism decreases without permanent damage until ice crystals form in the cells. Meaning the enzymes are inactivated, not denatured (even at extreme low temperatures, such as 0 C) and once the temperatures increase, they will regain their function. From the first graph which shows the percentage transmission from the colorimeter (a device which provides an indication of how deep a colour is, and could measure the index of concentration of the samples) at minute intervals at different temperatures; 15 C, 25 C and 35 C, there is a trend and pattern. This trend and pattern is that the lower the percentage of transmission from the colorimeter, the less light getting through, this means that there is a high concentration of starch (mg). Although, as time increases more and more of the substrate (starch) is being broken down into maltose so there is an increase of transmission from the colorimeter, meaning more light is passed through the solution. For example, at 35 C and at 0 minutes there is 1% transmission from the colorimeter, meaning that only 1% of light can pass through the solution because there is 465mg of starch (shown by the Starch Calibration Curve). As time increases to 20 minutes there is a 40% transmission from the colorimeter meaning there is 70mg of starch concentration left in the solution because it has been broken down by amylase at a high activity rate. The biological knowledge to support this trend and pattern is the kinetic theory; when a substance is heated, its molecules is being supplied with kinetic energy, so they move around faster. In this experiment, as the temperature rises from 15 C to 25 C to 35 C, there is an increase in the number of collisions between the active site of the enzyme and starch molecules and with more energy. This causes them to react more efficiently as this results in more enzyme-substrate complexes and in turn the formation of more products. At low temperatures e. g. 15 C, the molecules will not collide very frequently and the starch will not be broken down as quickly. This shown on the graphs at 15 C and at 0 minutes there is 0% transmission from the colorimeter, meaning that 0% of light can pass through the solution because there is 500mg of starch (shown by the Starch Calibration Curve). As time increases to 22 minutes there is a 15% transmission from the colorimeter meaning there is 160mg of starch concentration left in the solution. This is because it has been broken down by amylase at a slow activity rate, so there is a higher concentration of starch left compared to the 25 C (120mg) and 35 C (70mg) results. From the second graph; A graph to show the milligrams of starch at minute intervals at different temperatures, it shows that with time, the starch concentration is decreasing for each temperature that is being tested. This graph shows an exponential decay curve of the amount of starch concentration broken down for every x minutes, therefore the substrate will not totally be broken down. This reaction is not a equilibrium reaction because as the starch concentration decreases the enzyme finds it increasingly difficult to find enough substrate to act on. From my results, I can conclude that between temperatures 15 C 35 C, the efficiency of the enzyme increases with temperature. Therefore, the graph shows that 35 C is the optimum temperature because at the end of the experiment (at 20 minutes), the solution has a high percentage of transmission (40%) meaning 70mg starch left. So the amylase is breaking down the starch most effectively at 35 C due to the more light passing through from the colorimeter. These figures show that at 35 C the hydrolysis of starch using amylase is a lot more active, because the body temperature is around 35 C and enzymes such as amylase, are designed to work at this optimal temperature. So at 35 C maltose is formed a lot faster than at 25 C and 15 C. Whereas, at 15 C and 25 C the graphs show that the activity of the amylase is working at a much slower rate, therefore unable to break down as much of the starch in approximately 20 minutes. This is shown by a less percentage from the colorimeter, which does gradually increase over more time when more milligrams of starch is broken down into maltose. Evaluation of practical work: The experiment worked well overall, proving that the optimum temperature of the amylase used in this experiment was around 35 C. The results are sufficiently accurate as each set of results align almost a perfect curve, and they were taken at timed intervals far enough apart so that the readings are clear from each other. In this practical procedure the results could have been influenced by main sources of errors such as: The apparatus could have been improved as the water baths used were not all at the exact temperatures required, and each water bath possibly contained different amounts of water. If better quality water baths had been used and more time was issued to ensure that each of the three water baths had exactly the same amount of water and was at the exact temperature required, more accurate and reliable results would have been achieved. This also could have been achieved by repeating the experiment for each temperature more than twice and then calculating averages of the two sets of results. Also the use of a colorimeter could have altered the results of the colorimeter readings when it was set at 100% with a test tube of diluted iodine by a member of the group. To improve this we need to have used a photospectrometer which is a device that can stop the fluctuation of these percentage transmissions resulting in precise and accurate results. * We should have performed the experiment at intervals smaller than 10 C, so that we used a wider range of temperatures e. g. 10 C 70 C. At this temperature range I would have been able to see whether at the lowest temperature if the enzyme; amylase, could function at all effectively and that amylase would possibly denature at 70 C and definitely at a temperature above 70 C. Proving that above 70 C the amylase is denatured therefore no longer catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch, which is broken down into maltose. Conducting the experiment at 10 C intervals between these temperatures would have obtained a sufficient number of distinct results. * I think that the pipettes used were another main error. More accurate results could have been obtained by cleaning the pipette between each reading, or using a new pipette each time, although this couldnt practically happen. There was always some solution left over in the pipette from the previous solution, whether this was iodine solution, distilled water or when we were extracting the reaction medium and placing it in the diluted iodine solutions. Another problem with the pipettes is that when the reaction medium was extracted and clearfully put into a diluted iodine solution, during this time the amylase was acting on the starch while this solution was in the pipette. This made the timings recorded slightly out, although this effect may have been lessened with the temperature at 35 C as the mixture was cooling down to room temperature in the pipette. Also we could have possibly swirled the enzyme extract and starch solution together in the water bath so that the substrate and enzyme could mix and the molecules collide. A solution to this whole experiment would have been to automate (convert to a automatic operation) the whole system. This would have allowed a sample of the mixture to be automatically taken every minute or possibly more frequently, and the concentration of the starch stored onto a computer. Carrying out the experiment like this would have solved any inaccuracies in timing, which may not have always been exact when using a stop clock and someone watching the time. This way it would have also removed any human errors e. g. the test tube not being wiped properly before being placed into the colorimeter or didnt shake the reaction medium and diluted iodine solution together enough/too much etc. So if the experiment had use of better apparatus and stricter conditions, my results would have been plotted onto a graph and a more clear and accurate curve would have resulted.

Leadership in The Lord of the Flies essays

Leadership in The Lord of the Flies essays As Donald H. McGannon says, Leadership is action, not position. In the novel The Lord of the Flies, author William Golding shows how one boy, named Ralph, takes action from the beginning and is proven to be the best leader on the island in the end. Even though Jack takes control at the end of the novel, Ralph would overall make the best leader. At the end of the novel Jack takes control over the boys through force and leaves Ralph to fight for himself. Ever since the beginning Ralph is the leader of the boys and then Jack starts to be seen trying to establish order. For instance, at one point Jack and Ralph argue over who called the meeting. Ive called the assembly, said Jack, because of a lot of things. First of all you know now, weve seen the beast. We crawled up. We were only a few feet away. The beast sat up and looked at us. I dont know what it does. We dont even know what it is (125). Jack is leading the discussion and he addresses the fears of the boys, which shows that he is trying to win them over. He is starting to do things that Ralph would normally do. Jack also falsely accuses Ralph of things that he did not actually say just to make him look mean. Ive got the conch. Ralph thinks you are cowards, running away from the boar and the beast. And thats not all (126). First of all him having the con ch shows that he is taking order. He is also trying to make Ralph look bad so that the boys wont like Ralph and they will turn to Jack as a leader. At this point of the novel Ralph is now on his own and everyone is against him, not by choice but by popular demand. Samneric were savages like the rest; Piggy was dead, and the conch had smashed to powder (186). Now that Ralph is alone and has no control over anything, it is clear that Jack has completely taken over. Jack wins power by forcing the boys to beli...

Research Paper Challenge and Change in Society Essay

Research Paper Challenge and Change in Society - Essay Example In the period of 1946-1950 UNICEF spent $112 million to provide "articles of clothing to five million children in twelve countries, vaccinated eight million against tuberculosis, rebuilt milk processing and distribution facilities, and [. . .] provided a daily supplementary meal to millions of children" (Haberman, 1972). Though the initial mandate of the program was for immediate and emergency aid, the organization has expanded to provide a wide range of diverse and long-term projects. The purpose of the United Nation's mandate is stated in UNICEF's mission statement which says it is to, "advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential" (About UNICEF: Who we are, n.d.). UNICEF has moved beyond emergency relief and into the areas of pro-active medical and educational needs. Its long-term and rapid response efforts are designed to help disadvantaged children that are the victims of poverty, violence, exploitation, and war. Many of their programs are gender specific as they fight for equal rights for girls and women. One of the goals of UNICEF is to promote girls' "full participation in the political, social, and economic development of their communities (About UNICEF: Who we are, n.d.). The numerous programs implemented by UNICEF have at their core the goal of improving the lives of children everywhere in the world. The motivation behind UNICEF lies in their belief in the principle that all children have civil and human rights that need protected. The Convention on the Human Rights of Children (CRC) is a widely ratified treaty that provides the protection of "civil rights and freedoms, family environment, basic health and welfare, education, leisure and cultural activitiesand special protection measures" (Why we do it: Children have rights, n.d.). UNICEF is driven by a philosophy that children not only deserve the basic protection of human rights, but the best way to change the world is to improve the condition of the children which will be tomorrow's adults. In their efforts to raise the standard of living for children UNICEF has programs that are implemented in 190 countries including most of the industrialized world. As an example of their international efforts is the recently launched program to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) in eight countries in Western and Southern Africa and India (UNICEF, UNITAID, 2007). The PMTCT initiative works in partnership with UNITAID, a World Health Organization (WHO) effort whose mission is to provide "long-term, sustainable and predictable funding to increase access and reduce prices of quality drugs and diagnostics for the treatment of HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis in developing countries" (What is UNITAID, 2007). In the United States the United State's Fund for UNICEF has raised over $1.6 billion to "promote the survival, protection, and development of all children worldwide through fundraising, advocacy, and education (United States Fund for UNICEF, 2008). Because the United States is a leading voice in the United Nations UNICEF has looked to the American citizens for support and advocacy. The activities of UNICEF in the United States have not been without controversy. During the Cold War standoff between

The Legal System of the European Union Research Paper

The Legal System of the European Union - Research Paper Example The treaty that established the Constitution for Europe was signed in the year 2004, but as at 2007, it became apparent that the treaty would not be ratified by member states. The Reform Treaty or the Treaty of Lisbon, which included an amended version of the original constitutional text of the Treaty that established the European Constitution, as well as numerous changes to the EU, was signed in December 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal. The aim of the new treaty was to ratify it in its member countries before the European elections held in 2009. The future of the Lisbon Treaty is uncertain following its rejection by a referendum in Ireland in the year 2008 and its ratification in other member states is still on hold since 2008 (Barnard, 2007). From the start, the plan behind establishing a common legal and economic community in Europe was to create a common market. This vision formally materialized in 1993, and is currently down the path of monetary, political and economic union. At this s tage, it is imperative to point out the EU member states. From 2008, EU member states are Germany, Austria, Cyprus, Ireland, Latvia, Belgium, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Poland, Denmark, Italy, Estonia, Finland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Hungary, Greece, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. However, Turkey Republic of Macedonia and Croatia are currently official member countries while Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia are potential member candidates (Albi, 2008). The EU is continually enlarging its scope through the accession of new member states. The enlargement process started with the inner six nations that founded the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952, namely, Belgium, France, West, Italy, Luxembourg and Netherlands. Since then, membership to the EU has grown dramatically. European Integration refers to the method of improvement although this term also refers to the increased cooperation betwe en EU members through the process of gradual harmonization of individual, national laws. In order to become a member of the EU, a state must meet numerous political and economic thresholds referred to as the Copenhagen Criteria, established pursuant to the Copenhagen summit of 1993. The criteria require that the state has a stable, democratic government, which upholds the rule of land, as well as the consequential institutions and freedoms under law. Pursuant to the Maastricht Treaty, all member states together with the European Parliament must approve any enlargement (Bache & George, 2006). The operations of the EU run through a scheme of supranational independent institutions, as well as decisions negotiated by member states through an intergovernmental system. The EU systems allow free interchange of goods, people, services, and capital among EU member states as within a nation. This means that there are no tariff restrictions among member states. Furthermore, the EU member state s use a single unified set of tariffs on goods and services imported from outside the union. This tariff is referred to as the common customs tariff. The establishment of a single, unified EU market has had

Tourism Marketing Information and London's Image Management Dissertation

Tourism Marketing Information and London's Image Management - Dissertation Example The paper is also going to look at how London as the selected tourist destination has been managed to maintain and improve its image all over the world. This study has been developed on the basis of previous researches conducted on the role played by marketing information and management on the image destination. It was realized that tourist information sources and proper destination management play a significant role when it comes to destination image. This empirical research was carried out to examine the relationship proposed by the paper. The findings show that there exists a positive relationship between marketing information and proper management with destination image. The marketing information is related to London’s accessibility, its culture, its operating intermediaries, its people and its weather. The management of a tourist’s destination as well as the marketing information has to take into consideration what is expected by the tourists and the stakeholders a nd what is delivered. To show this, primary data was collected from selected areas in London and a qualitative analysis done to analyze the content from the viewers. In addition, secondary data was collected from different sampled blogs after which the information was equally analyzed. The findings of the study show that there is a positive correlation between reliable marketing information and proper destination management with destination image. Table of Contents Table of Contents i List of figures v List of Tables vi Appendix vii Acknowledgements viii Declaration of Originality ix Executive Summary x Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Objectives and Aims 4 1.3 Research Motivation 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 2.1 Background of London Tourism Market 10 2.2 Tourism Marketing Information 11 2.2.1 Importance Of Information 12 2.2.2 Areas for Information Generation 14 2.2.2.1 Sources Of Information 15 2.3 Image Management 20 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 27 3.1 Research The ory and Research Strategy 27 3.2 Data collection 28 3.2.1 Primary Research Method 28 3.2.1.1 Questionnaire 31 3.2.2 Second Research Method 34 3.3 Qualitative Content Analysis 36 3.3.1 Analysis of the Questionnaires 36 3.3.2 Analysis of the Blogs 37 3.4 Credibility, Validity and Reliability 39 Chapter 4 Findings 42 4.1 Findings of the Research 42 Chapeter 5: Discussion 50 5.1 Discussion of the Research 50 Chapter 6: Conclusion 56 6.1 Conclusion of the Research 56 6.2 Limitations And Future Recommendations 59 REFERENCES 61 List of figures Figure 1 9 List of Tables Table 1 35 Table 2 44 Table 3 46 Table 4 47 Table 5 48 Table 6 49 Table 7 50 Appendix List Appendix A 111 Appendix B 112 Appendix C 113 Appendix D 114 Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank my family for the support, sacrifice and encouragement during the completion of my dissertation. My family stood out as a strong pillar during the many months of juggling family with school. I would also like to express my s incere gratitudes to my poarents who remained confidence in me and my abilities Second, many thanks go to my supervisor whose guidance and patience helped me to take each step of this journey. Lastly, I would like to thank my RA’s and my friends who went to great lengths to help me in gatheruing the data required to complete this study Thank you deeply to all of you! . Declaration of Originality MASTERS DISSERTATION SUBMISSION FORM Student’

Case Study Workplace Learning Analysis Education Essay

Case Study Workplace Learning Analysis Education Essay In recent years workplace learning has gone from being largely unnoticed to attracting unprecedented interest among employers, researchers and policy makers. This interest can be attributed to globalisation, technological and social changes, economic shifts and organisational developments. The ideas of learning linked to work roles and learning occurring at work are not new yet concepts such as lifelong learning, the learning society and the knowledge economy have contributed to the development of workplace learning as a distinctive field of enquiry (Lee et al., 2004:2). The recognition of workplace learning as a source of sustainable competitive advantage for individuals and organizations alike have also attracted a great deal of interest to ensure that workplace learning is effective. David Boud (1999:5) goes on to assert that in this context: Workplace learning is concerned not only with immediate work competencies, but about future competencies. It is about investment in the general capabilities of employees as well as the specific and technical. And it is about the utilisation of their knowledge and capabilities wherever they might be needed in place and time. Many scholars agree that the workplace provides a rich environment for learning (Hager, 2004; Billet, 2001, Boud, 1999). In the changing context of work and new competence demands there is widespread consensus about the importance of workplaces as significant sites for learning new skills and knowledge. Indeed, the workplace is now even named by some as the Learning Organisation which is defined by Pedler et al (1998) as an organisation which facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself (Thompson, 2006:2). Workplace learning includes a variety of models like formal, non-formal, informal and incidental. On the contrary to the wide availability of different types of learning, relatively little is known about its effects at individual and/or organisational level (Felstead et al, 2009). The lack of such information may involve a low degree of intentional influence at individual and organisational level to optimise take up and effectiveness of workplace le arning (Felstead et al, 2009). Literature substantiates the claim that workplaces differ in terms of the opportunities they provide for employees to engage in learning activities and personal development (Billett, 2001). Workplaces also differ in terms of their complexity, their culture, their power and the nature of their boundaries with contexts of learning and knowledge production (Clarke, 2005). Research shows that workplace learning is a socially situated process where the context, in terms of its structures, activities and relationships shape the learning environment and learning opportunities in the workplace (Lee et al, 2004). As Marsick and Watkins comment, the creation of a learning environment goes far beyond the design of learning itself. It involves the design of work, work environments, technology, reward systems, structures and policies (1990:44). Awareness and understanding of these factors is a pre-condition to foster an effective workplace learning at organisational level as well as at policy lev el. In fact, Felstead (2009:193) has suggested that there is some evidence in the larger field of human resource development that a focus on the learning of individuals is less significant than a focus on the organisation as a context for learning Increasingly, the importance of developing an appropriate learning environment in order to foster workplace learning is dominating organisational agendas (Clarke, 2005). Such realisation are in evidence in the UK, where the British government through the HM Treasury report Prosperity for all in the global economy -world class skills (2006), has set workplace learning in the wider context of government policy and emphasised the importance of developing effective workplace environments to support workplace learning in particular (HM Treasury 2006, The Leitch Review of skills). Despite ongoing government support for learning in the workplace, findings showed that there remains a significant gap between policy and practice (National guidance research forum). Employers complain that despite the available government funding the costs of involvement outweigh the benefits. Further many UK workplaces are still considered as being low-skill and offering poor opportunities for learning and there are worries that significant shortages of skilled workers will start to appear, unless workplace learning is enhanced (CIPD, survey report 2008). Addressing the issue, findings from The Teacher and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) revealed that for workplace learning to be effective in the UK, various aspects of workplace context need to be considered than merely providing learning opportunities at work. Since learning is influenced by the workplace context, exploring the contextual factors that may influence employees learning is critical to advancing our understanding of how different aspects of the workplace environment are likely to be important in fostering an effective learning climate (Clarke, 2005). It has been acknowledged that workplace provides an environment for learning that either facilitates or inhibits learning, yet few research studies have examined the extent to which the environment serves to enhance learning. A few commentators, notably Billett (2001), Fuller and Unwin (2003), and Ashton (2004), have sought to extend this view and have pointed to workplace structure and context as significant factors within the processes of learning at work (Lee et al, 2004). In particular, Skule (2004) has acknowledged that research on assessing and measuring the contextual factors that promote or impede learning at work is underdeveloped (Skule, 2004). Therefore this study sought to investigate and discuss the influence of contextual factors that have been posited in the literature as influencing workplace learning specifically. This paper shows that by locating workplace learning in context, clearer understandings of the factors influencing the learning environment and processes can be gained. It also shows how the workplace context can provide both barriers to and opportunities for learning. Firstly, different forms of workplace learning are identified. Two opposite paradigms or approaches to understanding the phenomenon of learning at work are discussed. However, the focus of the paper is not on formal programs but on informal/incidental learning which occurs in the workplace. Then the report aims to discuss appropriate context conditions for learning at the workplace. Workplace learning Workplace learning is attracting attention for a number of different reasons. It is often characterised and conceptualised as advantageous to all those involved: there are benefits to employers in raising productivity and profitability, there are benefits to employees in raising employability and earnings and there are benefits to the economy in raising competitiveness and growth. Apparently, workplace learning is a term applied to various contexts and surrounded by different points of view. Thereby generating a myriad of different lenses through which workplace learning is viewed and understood. David Boud (1999:11) argues that, workplace learning is a site of intersecting interests, contested ideas, multiple forms of writing and rapidly evolving practice. There is no consistent and generally accepted definition of workplace learning (Lee et al., 2004). One definition of workplace learning was provided by Marsick and Watkins during the 1990s. Their definition focused on the way individuals learn and respond to changes in the organisational environment that in turn influences the way in which people construct meaning in their personal and shared organisational lives. Fuller and Unwin described workplace learning as learning in, for, and through the workplace (2006:23), suggesting that learning can be embedded in social relations. Beckett (1999), in relation to workplace learning, tends to focus on key HR policy choices and agues that organisations should provide mentoring and coaching and dedicated time to engage in policies for individual strategies such as appraisal, career planning, incentives to learn etc and link workplace learning strategy to evidence of learning (cited in workplace learning: main themes and perspectives). Not only workplace learning is represented by a variety of meanings, the literature is also informed by different views. The literature on workplace learning is rather confusing as it has been viewed from the perspective of a variety of disciplines such as sociology, cognitive psychology, policy studies, management theory, learning theory etc, each reflecting different assumptions and perspectives (Hager, 2004). However, in the field of management theory (HRM), approaches to classifying types of workplace learning demonstrate two main dimensions or approaches to discussions. The dominant perspective has been the traditional perspective of learning. Many researchers work within what Beckett and Hager (2002) have called the standard paradigm of learning which assets that the best learning consists of abstract ideas that are context independent and transparent. Here learning is a process of individual acquisition of knowledge. Hence he goes on to argue that in this paradigm non-transparent learning is a second-rate kind of learning (Hager 2004:244). This is important for studies of workplace learning because it takes us beyond the simplistic and restricted traditions of cognitive and behaviourist psychology and embraces the role of tacit knowledge. This learning opposes the emerging paradigm of learning which emphasise the importance of how people make sense of their experiences at work. Hager (2004:246) argues that rather then being simply a change in the properties of the learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the main outcome of learning is the creation of a new set of r elations in an environment. This is why learning is inherently contextual, since what it does is to continually alter the context in which it occurs. Similarly, Sfard (1998) has used the notion of metaphors of learning. The first metaphor -learning as acquisition is based on the premise that knowledge exists independently of the knower but can be acquired and acted upon. The second metaphor -learning as participation emphasises learning happening in relation to others before it is internalised by the individual. Sfard (1998) emphasized that neither metaphor was adequate on its own (Sfard, 1998:44). A different perspective to workplace learning emerged in academic writings in the early nineties, greatly influenced by the work of Lave and Wenger (1991). Situated learning theories draw on concepts such as communities of practice to explore workplace learning. This new perspective emphasises the construction of knowledge within the social and cultural circumstances in which learning occur, namely the social context. Lave and Wenger (1991) who in stressing that learning is at its most meaningful when it is situated showed how researchers should focus on the community of practice rather than on the individual as the unit of analysis. It is argued that workplace learning depends on the extent to which organisations afford employees opportunities to participate and interact with colleagues (Billet, 2001). Even though Lave and Wengers concepts of communities of practice have enjoyed widespread popularity within workplace learning theory, it has been criticised for failing to take accoun t of the role of formal education and not discussing that employees in a workplace may or may not have opportunities to be part of a community of practice (Fuller and Unwin, 2003). The second main dimension of learning relates to the distinctions between formal and informal learning. Formal workplace learning is typically associated with training and education. It is also conceptualised as a standard paradigm of learning or learning by acquisition. According to Marsick and Watkins (1990), formal learning occurs as part of an organised workplace-accredited programme and is embedded within the organisations structure. They argue that formal learning has a finite end point that results in a qualification to undertake specific work activity. In contrast, informal workplace learning can be thought of as a process of learning that takes place in everyday work experience (Marsick and Watkins, 1990). Informal learning involves action and reflection and includes self-directed learning, mentoring, coaching and social interaction. Informal learning is seen to be integrated into daily routines (i.e. experience-based learning), not highly conscious (i.e. implicit learning), influenced by chance and linked to learning of others (learning by communicating) (Lee et al., 2004; Marsick and Watkins, 1990). Indeed research shows that learning by doing is the most effective method of learning. The term informal learning sometimes is used interchangeably with incidental learning. Marsick and Watkins drew distinction between informal and incidental learning. They described informal learning as focusing on experiential forms of learning and incidental learning as focusing on unintentional or unplanned learning (cited in affordances and constraints on informal learning in the workplace). In this context, learning is assumed to be an action arising from experience that may enable the learner to develop and acquire new skills. Incidental learning can be described as a social process and can be conceptualised using Lave and Wenger (1991) notion of a community of practice. Research indicates that about two-thirds of workplace learning may be informal or incidental (Marsick and Watkins, 1990; Skule, 2004). There is also apparent consensus that informal learning is becoming increasingly the preferred option for developing employees. One of the most important issues here is the realisation that much of the knowledge that individuals need and use in organisations is based upon their experience and often cant easily be found in any written form. For example, Billett (2001) conducted several studies of coal miners and workers in industries, concluding that in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning resulted from learners engagement in authentic activities, guided by experts and by interacting with other co-workers. Although learning was unique to each co-worker, it was also shaped by the workplace culture. His study revealed that the quality of learning depended on the kind of activities engaged in, access to support, guidance, and how co-workers constructed their knowledge of different situations. According to Billett (2001:21) ..these factors influence the process of learning and what is learnt. In doing so, they reflect the interdependence between work and learning, providing a basis to consider not only the contributions of the workplace as a learning environment, but also how the workplace might be organised to improve learning Informal learning suggests that the social and cultural environment has the potential to influence how learning occurs. Furthermore few studies have investigated how the sociocultural context has facilitated and constrained informal learning at work. This is a critical area of investigation because of the growing reliance on informal learning as a means of developing the knowledge and skills required in the workplace (Felstead, et al, 2009). Although informal workplace learning is the most prevalent form of learning in organisation, it is also the least well supported (Eraut, 2004). A central argument of this paper is that the workplace can be understood to foster or hinder particular types of learning environment. Drawing on Lave and Wengers (1991) situated learning theory, Fuller and Unwin (2003) developed an expansive-restrictive framework that provides a conceptual and analytical tool for evaluating the quality of learning environments and for analysing an organisations approach to workforce development (Lee et al, 2004). Expansive learning environments include opportunities to engage with multiple communities of practice, gain broad experience across the organisation, learn off and on-the-job and extend job roles. Restrictive environments on the other end are characterised by workplaces with limited opportunities to acquire formal qualifications and much narrower approach to work design (Fuller and Unwin 2003; 2004a). In their study, they identified three participatory dimensions. Firstly opportunities for engaging in multiple communities of practice at and beyond the workplace. Secondly, access to a multidimensional approach to the acquisition of expertise through the organisation of work and job design and finally the opportunity to pursue knowledge-based courses related to work (Clarke, 2005). The findings further revealed that organisations with expansive approach foster a wide range of formal, non-formal and informal approaches to and opportunities for learning whereas a restrictive approach impose many limitations on learning. Within organisations adopting an expansive approach, learning is likely to take place horizontally as well as vertically, and the culture is likely to be less hierarchical. Individual employees are also likely to vary as to whether their approach to learning is expansive or restrictive, and their attitudes may be in harmony with or in opposition to the culture of the organisation in which they work. Fuller and Unwin (2003) and Billett (2001) stress the importance of persons dispositions towards workplace l earning. Those personal dispositions influence what and how an individual learn at work. Fuller and Unwin research was contested by some authors, notably Young (2001) who pointed out that not all workplace learning will take place across teams or in social circumstances. Young further argues that the emphasis that expansive learning places upon transformation could potentially lead to the creation a new learning binary mirroring that of formal/informal learning (Lee et al, 2004, cited in workplace learning main themes and perspectives). This brief introduction has highlighted that learning in the workplace can be formal, informal and incidental and that workplace can foster or hinder particular types of learning environment. The various definitions of workplace learning explain that the all encompassing nature of the term makes it difficult to establish how far there has been a shift in human resource management towards making more effective use of the workplace as a source of learning (Stern Sommerland 1999 cited in workplace learning main themes and perspectives). Arguably the differing dimensions of workplace learning within these literatures examine the influence of the workplace context at different levels of analysis and more importantly influence learning differently (Clarke, 2005). Organisations can play a major role in facilitating their employees learning by providing an environment that is conducive to a positive attitude to learning. Conditions for effective Workplace Learning The effectiveness of learning activities at the workplace is dependant on a variety of factors. Scholars such as Fuller and Unwin (2003), Billett (2001), and Skule (2004) have identified various factors that affect workplace learning, either directly or indirectly in a large number of contexts. Research shows that organisational structure, workplace context and social-cultural conditions at work shape the learning environment and learning opportunities in the workplace (Ashton, 2004). Besides, there are also individual factors such as individual dispositions, psychological learning potential, employment status and educational background which affects individuals learning at work. This section focuses on analysing briefly the workplace context and social-cultural conditions influencing workplace learning. Based upon a review of the literature, a range of factors were identified that were considered aspects of workplace environment for facilitating or constraining workplace learning ou tcomes: (Clarke, 2005:8). Environmental factors The rapid changes in the economic and social conditions means organisations have to constantly adapt in order to survive. This adaption involves the acquisition of new skills and competences at the workplace and job level, thus inevitably influencing the degree and quality of learning in the work context (Skule, 2004). This relationship is empirically confirmed by Skule (2004) who identify a positive correlation between exposure to competition of the organisation and learning-intensity of jobs. Moreover diversification of technologies and advanced information are becoming increasingly pivotal to the success of organisations and professional practices, irrespective of their size or industry sector. This is because information technology not only automates, it also informates à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ information technology can create an environment for thinking and problem solving (Schuck 1996:1999). Thus the successful integration of technology into the organisations functioning can have drama tic impact on the learning opportunities. Organisation structure and culture How motivated individuals are to learn and how encouraged they feel in learning all depend in large part on the organisation, its culture and how it is managed. In short, when it comes to learning, an organisation can facilitate or hinder workplace learning. Ashton (2004) through his empirical studies identifies the following workplace practices that have major influence on workplace learning: (1) Tasks variation in the job. Placing employees into different functions or departments so that they gain skills and knowledge in different contexts and able to shadow other employees. Secondments and job rotation constitutes an appropriate instrument in this respect. (2) Autonomy vs Standardisation of tasks and work processes. Task with a high degree of autonomy facilitates developmental learning, whereas a task with a high degree of standardization facilitates reproductive learning. (3) Cross-functional teams. Many organisations are starting to see the potential of cross-functional teams as an effective means of supporting workplace learning. One benefit of employee working in cross functional team is that knowledge and skills from other team members is transferred directly and formally. (4) Organisational decisions about learning and its impor tance. This underpinned the support available for learner from all levels (Lee at al, 2004). Whilst Ashton empirical study reveals that workplace practices can and do influence learning and access to learning, it also draws attention to the significance of learning culture. It follows that a very effective way of improving workplace learning is to improve the learning culture. This entails making changes to existing working conditions and day-to-day practice of management (Skule, 2004). Skule (2004) identifies, in a quantitative study that managerial beliefs, attitudes and behaviours together with leadership issues (like feedback, support and reward) were the most conducive factors to learning at work. While approaches to management development normally emphasise motivation, productivity and appraisal, relatively little attention is given to creating a climate which promotes learning (Thompson, 2006). More specifically managing should be comparable to coaching, education and skills of managers have to be adapted towards pedagogy and teaching methods to support and structure learning processed in workplaces. To appoint managers and develop them for this new role of facilitating learning would be a highly significant move. According to Schuck (1996:207) The beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours of the manager are at the heart of the environment of inquiry. Within pedagogy for meaning, a manager creates opportunities for learning and becomes an active participant in it. The manager of inquiry encourages people to ask questions and creates an environment in which intellectual play and socially mediated learning are necessary and legitimate components of work. Research shows that the most effective learning cultures are best when a learning culture is expansive (Fuller and Unwin, 2003). Fuller and Unwin study on apprenticeships revealed that quality of learning varied significantly between expansive and restricted firms despite the fact that all were part of the same government scheme. Furthermore, they state that expansive learning environments, which encourage access to diverse forms of participation, were more likely to facilitate integration of personal and organizational development. Billett (2001) shares Fuller and Unwin (2003) view on co-participation but adds that learning is more likely to be effective if there is synergy between the factors and forces that contribute to the learning -e.g workplace affordances (race, gender, personal relations etc), supportive management and learn part of the culture (Clarke, 2005) Socio-cultural context While the organisational context of learning is clearly important, we should also note the significance of the socio-cultural context of learning. Socio-cultural perspective on learning can be traced back to the work of Vygotsky (1978) who suggested that learning cannot be understood without considering the social and cultural context in which learning takes place. Echoing Vygotsky, Lave and Wenger (1991) have conceptualised learning in the workplace as participation in social practice. From this perspective, workplace learning is seen as arising as a result of a complex interaction between knowledge acquisition based within the work and social activities or practices of groups within organisations (Lave Wenger, 1991). Workplace leaning is not isolated from social practice. This is clearly an important consideration in understanding the consequences of learning in workplaces (Billett, 2001). This can be seen to apply in a number of ways: The social circumstances in the learning situation can play a significant part in how learning experiences proceed for example a disable learner may be held back in his or her learning because of disadvantages within the organisations concerned. Moreover, factors such as race, gender can have a significant influence on learning. For example gender stereotyping can shape peoples attitudes and approach to learning (Felstead et al, 2009). Billett (2001) highlighted that workplace learning is social and cultural in nature. In his research on skill formation in coal mines, Billett argued that workplace activities are structured by historical, cultural and situational factors that influence the kind of learning that occurs through work (Clarke, 2005). From the sociocultural perspective, learning is recognised as a social practice where it is highly dependent upon the social situation and cultural context in which it takes place. In order for workplace learning to be effective then, such insights recognise learning not as an isolated individual activity but deeply rooted with networks of social relationships (Clarke, 2005). The point was made earlier that workplace conditions can either foster or hinder workplace learning, but it is not just these factors that can play such pivotal role. There are other barriers within the workplace that hinder workplace learning, these will be discussed next. Workplace learning is not only dependent on workplace conditions but also on personal factors. Smith (2000) has criticised the literature on workplace learning for assuming that all learners in the workplace are generally self-directed and motivated (Clarke, 2005:15). However many employees do no have these skills. Learning readiness should be apparent in individual. Willingness to learn can also be limited if the specific needs and potential benefits are not apparent such as time made available during working hours. Moreover an understanding of the different types of learning strategies used by individuals within organisations is crucial to foster an effective workplace learning. It is often claimed that employee learning is essential to the success of a firm, but the evidence in UK says otherwise. It is important to note that not all employees are provided with the same opportunities for learning in the workplace. Survey from CIPD shows that unskilled workers are the least to receive opportunities for learning, mostly female part time employee. Further findings revealed that three-quarters of organisations reported that their manual staff had no formally appointed mentor and half admitted that they had no structured on the job training. The lack of awareness of learning needs for organisations and the reluctance by managers to guide and provide support to learners may inhibit the outcome of workplace learning. Managers may be reluctant about sharing knowledge for fear of loss of status and power (Lave Wenger 1991). For example in Japanese corporations, where workplace learning is widely accepted, managers roles include training subordinates. Yet these manag ers are secure because promotion is based on seniority, therefore, they will not be displaced. In Australia however industrial affiliation results in particular jobs being undertaken by particular groups of workers (Owen 1995, cited in current issues and agendas in workplace learning). Lack of awareness of learning needs is also connected to uncertainty regarding the incentives to employees. In many UK organisations pay and status are rarely linked to the attainment of qualification and thus provide little incentive to see further training (Owen 1995, cited in current issues and agendas in workplace learning). Conclusion This paper explores and discusses the influence of workplace context on workplace learning specifically. Attempts to characterise workplace learning have generated a myriad of terms and hence, seen as a complex and multifarious concept within the literature (Lee et al, 2004). One of the reasons for the apparent ambiguity is because the term is applied to many different contexts and activities. This paper has also provided an overview of the two dominant perspectives of learning with the emphasis on the participation as an important learning process. To summarise the two perspectives: the standard paradigm of learning and learning as acquisition perspectives are rooted in traditional understandings of learning inspired by cognitive psychology and behaviourism. These perspectives tend to focus primarily on how individuals acquire knowledge within and across different psychological processes and levels. In contrast, the emerging paradigm and learning as participation perspectives understand the process of learning to be collectively generated. These perspectives are rooted in social understandings of learning where this is seen to occur through the social relations and participatory practices of individuals within communities of practice (Lave and Wenger, 2001). The second main dimension in discussion is the distinctions between formal and informal learning. Formal learning i s planned and provided by the organisation in an effort to increase employees effectiveness. Workplace learning can also be informal learning that is unintentional and result from interaction with other employees. Workplace learning is embedded within, takes its shape from and can be impeded or facilitated by the workplace context (Fuller et al, 2003:47). As mentioned in the paper workplace learning is a socially situated process where the context, in terms of its structures, activities and relationships shape the learning environment and learning opportunities in the workplace (Fuller and Unwin, 2003). All learning in the workplace is influenced by a range of factors and is shaped by external as well as internal imperatives. Factors namely environmental factor, organisational structure, workplace culture and social context were discussed. This paper e

life during wartime :: essays research papers

There’s nothing I can say about the parade of still pictures, the faces on the television – except, perhaps, that they all seemed to share a fierce pride in their eyes, photographed for the first time in their Marine Dress Blues. Surely their families are proud of them. I certainly am, and I never got to know any of them. And now, I never will. Names scroll in little yellow letters across the bottom of our glowing screens: Sergeants, and Captains, and Privates. These men have died for us. More will follow. We asked them to go, and they went. All across this nation -- here and there, sparkling across the map like fireflies on a summer night – sedans are slowly rolling to a stop outside of small, modest homes. Men in uniform emerge, straighten their tunics, and walk slowly up driveways. Doorbells are rung. Maybe here and there smiles will evaporate in shock and surprise as doors are opened, but more likely the face will be one full of stunned realization that the very worst thing in the whole world has happened. And children will be sent to their rooms. And the men will speak in somber, respectful tones. And sons and mothers and fathers and wives will be told that the one thing they love more than anything in this world has been taken away from them, that their sons and daughters will not be coming home, that their fathers or mothers have gone away and will never come back, not ever. Why do we do this? What could possibly be worth this? The war is an abject and utter failure. What everyone thought would be a quick, decisive victory has turned into an embarrassing series of reversals. The enemy, -- a ragtag, badly-fed collection of hotheads and fanatics – has failed to be shocked and awed by the most magnificent military machine ever fielded. Their dogged resistance has shown us the futility of the idea that a nation of millions could ever be subjugated and administered, no matter what obscene price we are willing to pay in blood and money. The President of the United States is a buffoon, an idiot, a man barely able to speak the English language. His vice president is a little-seen, widely despised enigma and his chief military advisor a wild-eyed warmonger. Only his Secretary of State offers any hope of redemption, for he at least is a reasonable, well-educated man, a man most thought would have made a far, far better choice for Chief Executive.